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In July 2010, the rights of humans to water and sanitation were accepted by a UN resolution. Nevertheless, worldwide 884 million people live without access to safe drinking water and sanitation. This unsafe water plays an important role in the transmission of waterborne parasites, which are an important cause of human disease. Through implementation of techniques such as wastewater treatment, drinking water purification and monitoring of the public water supply, the unhygienic conditions that led to bacterial infections in the developed countries have been largely eliminated. Contamination with parasites has been left out of these considerations, and the implementation of multi-barrier systems for the removal of parasites is needed.
Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are protozoan parasites that cause illness in vertebrates. The worldwide annual new infection rate of G. duodenalis is 2.8 x 108 infections and Cryptosporidium 3.0 x 105. Faecal-oral transmission of these parasites usually occurs during shedding of the robust stages of the parasites. Foodborne and waterborne transmission is common. There has been an increasing interest in waterborne parasitosis, and many scientific publications about the topic have been published. However, information about the occurrence and distribution of such infections in Germany is rare.
In total, 396 different water samples with different grades of contamination were investigated between July 2009 and January 2011.
Two different methods for sample preparation and three assays for analysis were combined for the comparative findings reported for the protozoan parasites in this study.
In this work 206 influent and effluent samples of wastewater treatment plants, 190 samples from surface waters (one recreational area, one small stream and the River Rhine) and the catchment area of a drinking water supply situated near the Rhine have been investigated.
This study gives an overview of the pathogens released from wastewater treatment plants. The contamination of surface waters, groundwater and drinking water has been demonstrated. In addition to the prevalence of the parasites in an area of 650 km2, parasite removal by wastewater treatment plants, by riverbank filtration, by passing through gravel layers into the groundwater and by drinking water purification have been assessed from these data.
In the first part of the study, all samples have been microscopically examined after performing an immunofluorescence test (IFT) with DAPI staining, and then, the Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts were quantified.
Parasitic stages could be detected in all water matrices. As expected, the highest levels have been detected in the influent samples of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). After wastewater treatment and proceeding through the hydrological cycle from surface waters and groundwater through to treated drinking water, a reduction in the number (oo)cysts was observed.
Seasonal variations were obvious for Cryptosporidium, particularly for the influent samples of the wastewater treatment plants, while Giardia cysts showed irregular curves.
Depending on their design capacity, processing technology and catchment area differences occurred between the wastewater treatment plants. No correlation was found between the prevalence of parasites and other microbial pollutants.
The investigations of the recreational area and of the running water in the catchment area included 54 samples that had been carried out in the bathing seasons of 2009 and 2010. Including the samples from the Rhine River, 11% of the surface waters were contaminated with Cryptosporidium spp. and 12% with Giardia duodenalis. Due to changes in the hydraulic regime of the surface water system in 2010, no increase in positive results was found despite an increase in the volume of water filtered.
In the area of drinking water supply, out of 113 samples, 8.8% were positive for Cryptosporidium oocysts and 0.88% were positive for Giardia cysts. However, cysts were not detected in raw water or in drinking water. The study provided evidence that Cryptosporidium spp. are present in all types of water and that the removal of Giardia during drinking water purification was more successful. Because these parasites originate from wastewater treatment plants, emission into surface water and subsequent infiltration into the aquifer are possible. Prior to reaching the consumer, oocyst reduction of one or two orders of magnitude was detected.
Due to the low infective dose of 1 – 10 (oo)cysts swimming in surface water, consuming drinking water is an infection risk for immunocompromised persons. Therefore, Giardia and Cryptosporidium should be included in the regular monitoring of drinking water supplies in the future.
In the second part of the study, 227 samples were investigated by two additional molecular assays (nPCR, nested polymerase chain reaction and LAMP, loop-mediated isothermal amplification). The advantages and disadvantages of these methods have been described and compared to standard methods (USEPA 1623 and ISO 15553), particularly with regard to their practical applicability and effectiveness. The detection frequencies for both target organisms varied between the three methods. Conventional microscopy identified more positive Giardia results than LAMP and nPCR (56.8%, 42.7% and 33.5%, respectively), whereas for Cryptosporidium the results were highest for LAMP followed by nPCR and IFT (43.6%, 41.9% and 30.4%, respectively). The main reasons for these variations are the different specificities and sensitivities of the assays.
The relative efficiencies have been calculated statistically with the result that the molecular assays are considered not equivalent to the conventional microscopy. However, LAMP is as equivalent as nPCR.
The presence of Toxoplasma gondii in water samples with different levels of contamination was investigated in the third part of this work.
T. gondii is also considered a parasite that is distributed by water-based transmission. No standards for the detection of T. gondii are available. Therefore, the molecular biological LAMP assay, which amplifies the Toxoplasma B1 gene, has been performed on water samples with different grades of contamination.
Out of 95 samples, Toxoplasma was detected in 9.6% of the influent and effluent samples from wastewater treatment plants but was not detected in surface water, groundwater or tap water samples.
This is the first study to undertake detection of T. gondii oocysts in water from Germany. The investigation of T. gondii in water samples provides indications of the infection risk from waterborne parasites to humans and animals.
In the present study, the LAMP method was tested for the detection of T. gondii. Furthermore, the study aimed to bring attention to the risk of toxoplasmosis outbreaks. The study reveals evidence that parasitic stages of G. duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp. and T. gondii are present in the hydrological circuit and are distributed by water-based routes. The advantages and disadvantages of the two sampling techniques and the three detection methods were demonstrated. In addition, it was verified that LAMP is equally effective compared to nPCR for the surveillance of drinking water, the prevention of epidemics, and tracing the source of contamination.
Meaningfully, the addition of Giardia and Cryptosporidium into the regular monitoring of drinking water supplies is recommended, especially for the health of immunocompromised persons. | English |
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