Universität zu Köln

Nguyen, Duy Chinh (2024). From the late Chola to early Vijayanagara Empire: Aspects of Kingship and Administration. PhD thesis, Universität zu Köln.

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Abstract

The history of South India was always linked to the history of the entire subcontinent. However, it always had its own characteristics due to its geographical location, languages, cultures, and societies. This land, in terms of language and culture, is the Dravidian region. During the medieval period of South India’s history, two states emerged that left the most obvious marks, namely the Chola empire (848-1279) and the Vijayanagara empire (1336-1646). Although these two states did not coincide in terms of territory or have direct connections or inheritance, they have one thing in common: they were both hegemonic states that covered large parts of South India at their respective peak periods. For Chola, it was the period under kings Rajaraja I (985-1014) and his son Rajendra I (1014-1044). As for Vijayanagara, its highest peak occurred during the reign of king Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529). If Chola played an important role in creating models of state and centralized administrative organization, Vijayanagara for several centuries had the role of uniting regions in southern India under a Hindu state institution, protecting traditional Hindu values, especially during a period that saw Islam spreading almost throughout India. In terms of state organization, Chola and Vijayanagara, as well as many other Hindu states (such as Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, Hoysala, etc.) took the form of centralized monarchies. The centralisation always developed to be strongest during the most prosperous periods of these states. At that time, the power of the king, who was the head of the royal court and held the supreme position, was extreme. He intervened deeply into local political structures as well as had the ability to mobilize financial resources and manpower. The latter was used for building architectural works and decorative arts. Moreover, there was always great need for military personel to enable the armies to bring home great victories. Scholars debate about the question of decentralization and centralization. Both sides have their arguments. However, it can be said that no matter what political model is imposed on South Indian history, the hegemony of the Chola and Vijayanagara central governments cannot be denied. At their peak, the Chola and Vijayanagara states, both, controlled vast territories and were the most powerful dominant forces in South India at their respective times. The central monarchical governments of these two polities created quite efficient bureaucratic systems. Thanks to that, they mobilized important resources of wealth and people to build magnificent royal and religious architectural works. On the other hand, they also created powerful military power, achieved important military victories and consolidated and expanded their spheres of influence. However, the circumstances of origin of these two kingdoms differed widely. The Chola for a long time did not have to face inimical forces that could destroy them. Therefore, they had ideal conditions to expand their sphere of influence also abroad, specifically in the Indian Ocean region (especially today’s Sri Lanka, the Maldives and other islands) and in Southeast Asia (their attempt for dominance over Sri Vijaya is well-known; less focus has been laid on multiple trade connections with countries that cover today’s West Malaysia, parts of Indonesia - especially Sumatra - , Cambodia, etc. From inscriptions we know that Tamil traders even reached South China.) Vijayanagara was founded in the context of powerful Muslim forces spreading over the Indian subcontinent. Over approximately three centuries, Vijayanagara successfully protected Hindu values and traditions against these forces. The empire’s power diminished sharply with the arrival of the first colonial forces from the West, resp. the Portuguese, from the sixteenth century onwards. These forces intervened in the political affairs and thus weakened the political power Vijayanagara held over South India. The empire finally had to enter into agreements with the Portuguese, which finally resulted in a sizeable reduction of the trading monopoly that finally had to be shared. For most of its existence, Vijayanagara had to mobilize forces to compete for influence with non-Hindu forces in South India, and therefore had little connection with other regions. Under these circumstances, the military character of the government became stronger and it led to the development of the nayaka system, a historical phenomenon unique to South India. The nayaka chiefs, whose main function was military, were both an important force that helped the Vijayanagara emperors maintain and consolidate their power, but at the same time also a factor that weakened the central government in Vijayanagara’s final historical period. Originating from a local state, controlling the fertile land around the Kaveri River Delta, Chola gradually grew into a large empire from the late tenth century onwards, becoming hegemonic in Southern India. The state structure also changed towards centralization. Military victories in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries were an important basis for kings Rajaraja I and Rajendra I to carry out political and administrative reforms of the kingdom. A quite effective centralized bureaucracy was introduced and developed. The establishment of the new administrative unit valanadu is an outstanding effort to illustrate the new system, because it was a sign of the central government's deep and strong intervention with local authorities. For about a century (985-1070), this centralized Chola apparatus was an important condition for the prosperity of the kingdom. According to several scholars, the era of the so-called imperial Cholas ended in 1070. However, in my opinion, the era can be considered to have continued up to the early thirteenth century (Kulottunga III). Although there were political upheavals at the top due to the controversial issue of succession to the throne beginning with King Kulottunga I, who started the Chalukya-Chola line (ruled 1070-1122), the centralized apparatus continued to be maintained. It became essential from the beginning of the thirteenth century, during the last two kings Rajaraja III and Rajendra III, who gradually lost from their hands the centralized power of the Chola kingship. Regardless of whether the early kings of the Sangama dynasty and subsequent dynasties were of Kannada or Telugu origin, Vijayanagara was a state ruled by people who spoke many different languages of the Dravidian language family. It had gathered Hindu forces to protect traditional values that have existed for thousands of years in this land against the invasion of Muslim forces. Vijayanagara stood for more than two centuries and left behind many cultural and political legacies (for instance the succession of nayaka kingdoms). The Vijayanagara emperors, raya, who descended from warriors in the war against Muslim armies, became powerful rulers in South India, ruling over a territory as vast as ever in South Indian history. In order to maintain the military power of the central government, they established the nayaka system based on the loyalty of local military leaders, who were granted royal favors. In return, they gave the king the right to command their army when needed, which was vital in maintaining the existence of the kingdom. The nayaka system was the backbone of Vijayanagara hegemony in medieval South India. For the Tamil land, which they had occupied since the 1370s under the Sangama dynasty, the Vijayanagara kings, ruling from the capital in present-day Hampi, had relatively flexible and opent policies. The Tamil region was rich in agriculture and trade but it was remote from the central government in terms of both geographical distance and political ideology. This was the land of powerful kingdoms of the past, notably the Cholas, with cultural, social and political traditions distinct from those of the Telugu and Kannada homelands of Vijayanagara. Therefore, to avoid conflicts and to mobilize resources from this region, the Vijayanagara kings both respected and maintained some of the region's political traditions and adjusted the administrative system to be compatible with the entire region. They also apply the nayaka system in the Tamil region. These policies were effective for a long time and problems only began to arise after the reign of Krishnadevaraya (ruled 1509-1529) when conflicts at court led to the rebellion of Tamil chieftains against the royal court under Achyutadevaraya (ruled 1529-1542). Thereafter, the nayakas, local military leaders, in the Tamil region remained loyal to the Vijayanagara emperors even when the capital on the Deccan plateau was captured and the last Vijayanagara dynasty, Aravidu, was displaced to Penugonda in the Southeast. It was the great nayakas with their independent kingdoms who continued to resist Muslim forces until the early eighteenth century when the English colonial forces entered. The Chola emperors claimed their descent from the line of kings that ruled the ancient Chola kingdom during the so-called Sangam Age (ca. 3rd century BC till 3rd century AD). Therefore, they gained a solid support from traditions and religions that were deeply rooted in Southern India since ancient times. The king held the supreme power of the kingdom and the royal family also participated in political affairs. They have established an efficient bureaucracy and their power was exercised through their officials, although the structure of that machinery of government is not really clear in all respects. However, it can be seen that power was exercised through many governmental levels and was often not carried out directly. The first emperors of Vijayanagara, on the otherr hand, were warriors who served in the armies of Hindu kingdoms against invading Muslim forces and then established their own kingdom. They, with the help of their advisor and spiritual teacher Vidyatirtha, created their own tradition about their origin. The strongest basis for their legitimacy was doubtlessly their leadership of Hindu forces against the invasion of the Muslims. Thus it is, why the Vijayanagara emperors were generally able to represent communities speaking many different languages and following many different cultural traditions in Southern India - all under the same “umbrella” of traditional Hinduism. They established and maintained an extensive bureaucracy and administration in their territory, along with controlling the local nayaka military system. The power of the Vijayanagara kings was direct and relied heavily on the loyalty of local military leaders, which formed the main difference between the status of the kings of the Chola and the Vijayanagara dynasties.

Item Type:	Thesis (PhD thesis)
Creators:	Creators Email ORCID ORCID Put Code Nguyen, Duy Chinh nguyenduychinhhnue@gmail.com UNSPECIFIED UNSPECIFIED
URN:	urn:nbn:de:hbz:38-736389
Date:	September 2024
Language:	English
Faculty:	Faculty of Arts and Humanities
Divisions:	Faculty of Arts and Humanities > Fächergruppe 4: Außereuropäische Sprachen, Kulturen und Gesellschaften > Institut für Südasien- und Südostasien-Studien
Subjects:	Geography and history History of ancient world
Uncontrolled Keywords:	Keywords Language Chola UNSPECIFIED Vijayanagara UNSPECIFIED South Indian History UNSPECIFIED Medieval South India UNSPECIFIED Indian Kingship UNSPECIFIED
Date of oral exam:	19 September 2024
Referee:	Name Academic Title Niklas, Ulrike Prof. Dr. Kurfürst, Sandra Prof. Dr.
Refereed:	Yes
URI:	http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/id/eprint/73638