Okumu, Willis
(2017).
Meanings of Violence and Its Impacts on the Socio-Political Relations among the Turkana and Samburu of Baragoi, Northern Kenya.
PhD thesis, Universität zu Köln.
![[img]](https://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png)
|
PDF
WILLIS_OKUMU-PhD_Thesis.pdf - Published Version Download (5MB) |
Abstract
This thesis investigates the ways in which the Turkana and Samburu pastoralists groups use violence to negotiate their day to day relationships. Violence in the form of cattle raids, highway banditries, targeted shootings, torching of manyattas, vandalism of key resources such as schools and dispensaries and displacement of the ‘ethnic other’ are deployed by the two groups to gain power, cement in-group identity and eliminate competitors from common resources. In this study pastoralists’ violence is analysed as a resource and an agency through which individual and collective negotiations of socio-political relations between the Samburu and Turkana are carried out on a day to day basis. While pastoralists’ violence in East Africa has been seen in past studies from a moralist perspective as something negative, ‘primitive’ and as a symptom of break-down of law and order, this study, analyses violence as an a tool in the hands of the individual warrior’s, groups of warriors, political and business elites, deployed strategically to meet well planned ends of gaining power at an individual or collective level. To understand the changing meanings and purposes of violence among the Turkana and Samburu of Baragoi of Northern Kenya, this study approaches violence in Baragoi as a product of structural, proximate and processual factors. The interconnection between these three factors are explored through the following key arguments: that violence among pastoralists in Baragoi is part of a historical contest over socio-physical spaces between the Turkana and Samburu that has been ongoing since the pre-colonial times and has exacerbated over the years through the policies of colonial administrators and independent Kenya governments. Further, the regional instability in Eastern Africa has in effect contributed to the ‘normalising’ of violence through the proliferation of small arms and light weapons among the marginalised pastoralists of Northern Kenya. Historical marginalisation of Northern Kenya has further contributed to ‘normalisation’ of pastoralists violence as incidences of massacres are passed-off as cultural killings based cultural affinities among pastoralists. Passing off massacres as ‘cultural’ illustrates government’s disinterest and inability to govern pastoralist’s borderlands. In the contest over socio-spatial spaces of Baragoi, use and threat of violence in this case determines movement patterns of people and their livestock, electoral outcomes, grazing patterns, trading routes, location and access to livestock markets. The changing meanings and purposes of violence is also seen in the way the state interacts with the Samburu and Turkana. Residents narrate chronologies of ‘operations’ where paramilitary police have been deployed to ‘bring peace’ between the two groups. Contrary to the desired peace, these operations have tended to precipitate more violence as the state’s modus operandi of using greater instruments of violence including bombs and helicopter gun-fire have tended to cause deaths of people and livestock. Those who have lost livestock in such operations plan for new cycles of violence aimed at appropriating stock from ‘enemy’ groups and revenging lost lives. In this case the state as an actor in pastoralists’ violence deploys it as a route to inter-communal peacebuilding but it results into more violence. Violence is also analysed as a tool in the hands of political competitors used to gain power. Local elite conduct political campaigns based on their ‘protection credentials’ that is their ability to provide security for their ethnic groups against ‘enemy’ communities. Proof of protection credentials is tenable only through mobilisation of warriors for war, procurement and supply of arms and ammunition to warriors. Pastoralists’ violence in Baragoi is therefore linked to elite competition for and preservation of political power. Competition for political and economic power among elites further facilitates the patron-client networks between warriors, chiefs and Kenya Police Reservists (KPRs) on the one hand and the political and business elite on the other hand and this enables the sale and distribution of weapons used to conduct raids among enemy groups. Incidences of massacres reveal the inter-connectedness of past narratives of violence, to current violent contest and those of the future. Processual analysis of violence is applied in this thesis in the case of the Baragoi massacre of November 2012. It shows cases of pastoralists’ violence (in this case cattle raids) that have led to massacres in Northern Kenya to have been in situations where secondary actors mobilised for revenge (mostly political leaders). Revenge therefore plays a significant role as a catalyst for collective violence. This thesis analyses the state as a structural and proximate actor in violence among the Turkana and Samburu of Baragoi. Through the institution of KPRs, I argue that violence among pastoralists in Baragoi also stems from the local violent entrepreneurship that goes on in grazing lands among KPRs and warriors. The participation of KPRs in raids and highway banditries using government-issued arms and ammunition also reveals the complicity of the state in violence among pastoralists firstly through its neglect and marginalisation of Northern Kenya and secondly through its weak and unsupervised voluntary police unit; the KPRs which exacerbates the informalisation of violence in Northern Kenya. Violence and culture are also seen as mutually producing phenomena among the Turkana and Samburu of Baragoi. Violence is argued in this thesis has having the capacity to expand the cultural parameters of the traditional practice of cattle raiding. Violence among pastoralists that targets women and children in Baragoi today, reveal changes in the interpretation of female identities. While past studies argued that women and children were protected from violence though norms based on the notion that ‘women belonged to everyone’ as they adopted the identities of their husbands regardless of their ethnicities at birth (in patrilineal societies). This study reveals that increased targeting of women conforms to a more primordialist interpretation of identities among the Turkana and Samburu. The stringent interpretation of identities of women can also be argued to have expanded forms of violence on women such as rape, killing of milking stock and vandalism of women group investments. Stringent interpretation of ethnic identities can further be argued to have led to the diminishing of inter-ethnic marriages among the Turkana and Samburu of Baragoi. In summary, this study views violence among the Samburu and Turkana as a key driver of societal change based on its capacity to expand cultural parameters of institutions. It (violence) generates this general effect through the creation of fear that limits or precipitates movements and massacres that lead to displacements and dependency on relief supplies. The study applies several concepts drawn from anthropological theories of violence to explain the history and changing meanings of violence among pastoralists of Baragoi. This ethnographic study is the result of 101 in-depth interviews, 16 focused group discussions, 111 event calendars’ interviews and secondary data from the Kenya National Archives on the history of migration and settlement of the Samburu and Turkana in Baragoi, police signals, Occurrence Book data and personal notes obtained from respondents during the nine months of fieldwork in Northern Kenya compliment the interviews. Key words: Samburu, Turkana, pastoralists, violence, Northern Kenya
| Item Type: | Thesis (PhD thesis) | ||||||||||||
| Creators: |
|
||||||||||||
| Contributors: |
|
||||||||||||
| URN: | urn:nbn:de:hbz:38-73908 | ||||||||||||
| Date: | January 2017 | ||||||||||||
| Language: | English | ||||||||||||
| Faculty: | Faculty of Arts and Humanities | ||||||||||||
| Divisions: | Faculty of Arts and Humanities > Fächergruppe 4: Außereuropäische Sprachen, Kulturen und Gesellschaften > Institut für Ethnologie | ||||||||||||
| Subjects: | Social sciences Political science Customs, etiquette, folklore Geography and history |
||||||||||||
| Uncontrolled Keywords: |
|
||||||||||||
| Date of oral exam: | 20 January 2017 | ||||||||||||
| Referee: |
|
||||||||||||
| Funders: | DAAD, Right Livelihood College/ Center for Development Research (ZEF), Foundation Fiat Panis | ||||||||||||
| References: | Abbink J (1994) Changing Patterns of ‘ethnic’ violence- Peasant-Pastoralist confrontation in Southern Ethiopia and its implication for a theory of violence, Sociologus, pp 66-78, January. Abbink J (1998) Ritual and Political Forms of Violent Practice among the Suri of Southern Ethiopia, Cahiers d'études africaines Année, Volume 38 Numéro 150 pp. 271-295 Abbink J (2000) ‘Restoring the Balance: Violence and Culture Among the Suri of Southern Ethiopia’ in Aijmer Goran and Abbink Jon (eds), Meanings of Violence: A Cross Cultural Perspective, pp 77-101, Berg, New York Abbink J (2009) Conflict and social change on the south-west Ethiopian frontier: an analysis of Suri society, Journal of Eastern African Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp 22-41 Adano W.R, Witsenburg K, Dietz T (2012) Climate change, violent conflict and local institutions in Kenya’s drylands, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 49 no. 1 pp 65-80 Adem, T.A, Ember, C.R, Skoggard, I, Jones, E.C and Faas, A.J. (2012) Dangerous Geography: Spatial Distribution of Livestock Raiding in Northwestern Kenya, Ethnology: An International Journal of Cultural and Social Anthropology, Vol 51, No 1, 1-17 Aijmer G (2000) ‘Introduction: The Idiom of Violence in Imagery and Discourse’ in Aijmer Goran and Abbink Jon (Eds) Meanings of Violence: A Cross Cultural Perspective, pp 1-22, Berg, New York Akabwai M.O (n.d) Extension and Livestock Development: Experience From Among the Turkana Pastoralists of Kenya, Akabwai D and Ateyo P (2007) The Scramble for Cattle, Power and Guns in Karamoja, Feinstein International Center, Tufts University Almagor U (1979) ‘Raiders and Elders: A Confrontation of Generations among the Daasanetch’ in Fukui K and Turton D (Eds) Warfare among East African Herders, pp 119-144, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka Amutabi N.M (2010) Land and Conflict in the Elemi Triangle, Kenya Studies Review Volume 1 Number 2 Analo T. (2014) Guns, land and votes: How cattle warlords are fueling violence in the restive north, The East African, 3rd December Anderson E. (1999) The Code of the Street, New York: W.W. Norton. Aridi J. (2013) National Police Reserve Study, Draft Report, UNDP, Nairobi Bailey, F. G (1969) Stratagems and spoils: A social Anthropology of politics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Bailey, F G. (2001) Treasons, stratagems and spoils: How leaders make practical use of values and beliefs. Oxford: Westview Press. Bakonyi J and de Guevara B.B (2012) ‘The Mosaic of Violence-An Introduction’ in Bakonyi J and de Guevarra B.B (Eds) A Micro-Sociology of Violence. Deciphering Patterns and Dynamics of Collective Violence, pp 1-17, Routledge. Baragoi Police Station (2005) Intelligence Report, Police Signal, 23rd December. Baragoi Police Station (2008) Shooting Report, Occurrence Book, 28th April Baragoi Police Station (2008) Spying in Mnanda Village Report, Occurrence Book, 30th April Baragoi Police Station (2008) KPR Issued Firearm Received, Occurrence Book, 9th June Baragoi Police Station (2008) Cattle Rustling Report, Occurrence Book, 7th September Baragoi Police Station (2008) KPR Rifle Detained, Occurrence Book 6th October Baragoi Police Station (2008) Shoot-out Incident in Lonjoorin, Occurrence Book, 28th April Baragoi Police Station (2008) Recovered Cow from Lonyang’aten Handed Over, Occurrence Book 1st May Baragoi Police Station (2008) KPR Arms from Parkati Detained, Occurrence Book, 20th May Baragoi Police Station (2009) Rifle Handed Over to Nachola Location KPR, Occurrence Book, 16th April Baragoi Police Station (2009) Rifle Handed Over to Kawap Location KPR, Occurrence Book, 20th April Baragoi Police Station (2009) Ammunition Handed Over to South Horr Chief for KPRs, Occurrence Book, 25th June Baragoi Police Station (2009) Ammunition Handed Over to Kenya Police Reservists (KPRs) Occurrence Book, 1st July Baragoi Police Station (2010) KPR Rifle Kept, Occurrence Book, 12th April Baragoi Police Station (2011) Cattle Rustling and Rape Incident, Police Signal, Officer Commanding Police Post, Baragoi 11th June Baragoi Police Station (2011) Offence: Stock Theft Contrary to Section 278 of the Penal Code, 23rd September, Police Signal Baragoi Police Station (2011) Cattle Rustling and Shooting Incident at Kawap Village, Incident Report, Samburu North, 21st October Baragoi Police Station (2012) Intelligence Report on Mobilisation of Morans, Occurrence Book, 30th January Baragoi Police Station (2012) Cattle Raid in Lesirkan, Occurrence Book 20th October Baragoi Police Station (2012) Cattle Raid Incident in Lomerok, Police Signal 30th October Baragoi Police Station (2012) Firearms from Parkati KPRs Withdrawn, Occurrence Book, 25th November Baragoi Police Station (2012) G3 Rifle and Ammunition Handed Over to KPR, Occurrence Book, 10th December Baragoi Police Station (2012) KPR Rifle Handed Over, Occurrence Book, 26th December Baragoi Police Station (2013) Threatening Report, Occurrence Book, 19th January Baragoi Police Station (2013), Occurrence Book, Chronology of Events (2008-2013) Baragoi Police Station (2013) Incident Report, Police Signal, 25th August Baragoi Police Station (2013) Raid and Vandalism Report in Waso Rongai and Kawap Center, 20th October Baragoi Police Station (2013) KPRs Shoot-out with Suspected Raiders, Occurrence Book, 27th December Baragoi Police Station (2014) Shooting Incident, Police Signal, 14th December. Baragoi Police Station (2015) Shooting Incident, Police Signal, Officer Commanding Police Station (OCS) Baragoi, 28th March Barber J (1968) The Imperial Frontier: A Study of Relations between the British and the Pastoral Tribes of Northeast Uganda, Nairobi: East African Publishing House Barth F (1969) Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, London Barth F (1994) ‘Enduring and Emerging Issues in the Analysis of Ethnicity’, in Vermuelen Hans and Govers Cora (Eds) The Anthropology of Ethnicity: Beyond Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, Amsterdam, Het Spinhuis pp 11-32 Basset Thomas J (1988) The Political Ecology of Peasant-herder Conflicts on the Northern Ivory Coast. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 78(3):453-472. BBC News (2005) ‘Hunt for Child Killers in Kenya’ Thursday, 14th July http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4678211.stm, retrieved on 9th May 2015 Beck, T.K (2011) The Eye of the Beholder: Violence as a Social Process, International Journal of Conflict and Violence, Vol. 5. (2) pp 345-356 Bernt M and Colini L (2013) Exclusion, Marginalization and Peripheralization, Conceptual concerns in the study of urban inequalities, Working Paper, Erkner, Leibniz Institute for Regional Development and Structural Planning Bevan, J (2008a) Blowback: Kenya’s Illicit Ammunition Problem in Turkana North District, an Occasional Paper for the Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva Bevan James. (2008b) Crisis in Karamoja: Armed Violence and the Failure of Disarmament in Uganda’s Most Deprived Region. Small Arms Survey Occasional Paper No. 21. Geneva: Small Arms Survey. June. Bevan, J (2008c) Between a rock and a hard place: armed violence in African pastoral communities. UNDP, Nairobi. Bianco, B.A (1991). Women and Things: Pokot Motherhood as a Political Destiny, American Ethnologist, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 770-785, American Anthropological Association, http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/645452.pdf Blystad A (2005) Fertile Mortal Links. Reconsidering Barabaig Violence. In “Violence and Belonging: The Quest for Identity in Post Colonial Africa” Broch-Due V (Ed) pp 102-119, Routledge. Bohle, H-G (2007) Geographies of Violence and Vulnerability: An Actor-Oriented Analysis of The Civil War In Sri Lanka, ERDKUNDE Vol: 61, Issue: 2 Pages: 129-146 Bollig, M (1990) ‘Ethnic conflicts in North-West Kenya: PokotTurkana Raiding 1969—1984’ Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Bd. 115, pp. 73-90; Dietrich Reimer Verlag GmbH Bollig, M (1993) ‘Intra-and interethnic conflict in Northwest Kenya: A multi-causal analysis of conflict behaviour’. Anthropos, 88(1): 176-184. Bollig Michael and Österle Matthias (2007) ‘We turned our enemies into baboons’: Warfare, ritual, and pastoral identity among the Pokot of northern Kenya. In “The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and Communication of Armed Violence”, Rao A, Bollig M, Böck M (eds), Berghahn Books, New York , pp 23–51. Bollig M (2006) Risk Management in Hazardous Environment: A Comparative Study of Two Pastoral Societies, Springer. Bond, J (2012) Conflict and communication: the case of Laikipia County, Kenya, Critical Issues, Working Paper https://www.inter-disciplinary.net/critical-issues/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/jbondbilpaper.pdf Boone, C (2003). Political topographies of the African state: Territorial authority and institutional choice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bowman, G (2001) The Violence in Identity, In. “The Anthropology of Violence and Conflict” B. E. Schmidt and I. W. Schröder (Eds) pp 25–46. London and New York: Routledge. Broch-Due V (2005) Violence and Belonging: Analytical Reflections. In “Violence and Belonging: The Quest for Identity in Post Colonial Africa” Broch-Due V (Ed) pp 1-37, Routledge. Buchanan-Smith M and Lind J (2005) Armed violence and poverty in Northern Kenya: A case study for the armed violence and poverty initiative. Yorkshire, UK: University of Bradford, Centre for International Cooperation and Security Butler C.K and Gates Scott (2012) African range wars: Climate, conflict, and property rights, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 49 No.1 pp 23-34 Calabrese A (2010) Sending a Message: Violence as Political Communication, International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics, Volume 6, No 1, pp 109-114 Catley, A. Lind, J and Scoones, I (2013) Pastoralism and Development in Africa: Dynamic Change at the Margins. New York: Routledge. The Conflict Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN) (2004) Baseline Study of the Kenyan Side of the Karamoja Cluster, CEWARN Baseline Studies, Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) Region, May, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Cheserek E (2012) ‘Massacre Brought Out People’s Good Side’ The Standard. Wednesday February 8th Chikwanha Anne (2007) The Anatomy of Conflicts in East African Community (EAC): Linking Security with Development, Keynote speech to Development Policy Review Network-African Studies Institute, Leiden University, The Netherlands. Chopra Tanja (2008) Building Informal Justice in Northern Kenya, Research Report, Legal Resources Foundation Trust, Lenana Road, Nairobi. Clapham, C (1986) Third world politics: An introduction. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press Clunan A.L and Trinkunas H.A (2010) ‘Conceptualizing Ungoverned Spaces: Territorial Statehood, Contested Authority and Softened Sovereignty’ in Clunan A.L. and Trinkunas H.A (eds) Ungoverned Spaces: Alternatives to State Authority in an Era of Softened Sovereignty, pp 17-33, Stanford Security Studies, Stanford University Press, California. Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (1961) Legislative Council Debates, Official Report, Volume LXXXVIII, First Session 17th October-30th January 1962, Conflict Barometer (2014) Disputes, Non-Violent Crises, Violent Crises, Limited Wars, No. 23, Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research, Department of Political Science, University of Heidelberg, Germany Coser, Lewis A. 1956 The Functions of Social Conflict. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Cramer, C (2002.)"Homo Economicus Goes to War: Methodological Individualism, Rational Choice and the Political Economy of War", World Development, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 1845–1864 Daily Nation (2015) ‘Turkana East MP Nicholas Ngikor denies funding cattle raids’, Tuesday, 12th May, http://www.nation.co.ke/counties/turkana/Nicholas-Ngikor-cattle-raids-Turkana/1183330-2713524-1yvy1gz/index.html Das V (1996) Language and Body: Transactions in the Construction of Pain, Daedalus, Vol. 125, No. 1, Social Suffering, pp. 67-91 Diamond J (2008) ‘Vengeance is Ours’. What Can Tribal Societies Tell Us About the Need to Get Even? Annals of Anthropology Issue, The New Yorker, 21st April de Certeau, M (1984) The Practice of Everyday Life, Berkeley: University of California Press. Eaton, D (2008a) The business of peace: Raiding and peace work along the Kenya-Uganda border (Part I). African Affairs 107: 89-110 Eaton, David (2008b) Violence, Revenge and the History of Cattle Raiding Along the Kenya Uganda Border c. 1830-2008, PhD Thesis, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada Eaton, David (2010) "The Rise of the 'Traider': the Commercialization of Raiding in Karamoja." Nomadic Peoples 14(2): 106-122 Eaton D (2012) ‘Revenge, Ethnicity and Cattle Raids in Northwestern Kenya’ in Witsenburg K, and Zaal, F (Eds), Spaces of Insecurity: Human Agency in Violent Conflicts in Kenya, pp 48-62, Africa Studies Center, Leiden. Ekiru L (1995) Misuse of Power and Attempt for Murder, Letter to the District Commissioner Smaburu District, Baragoi Township, Maralal Ekiru L (2009) Memorandum to the Hourable Minister for Internal Security, Presented by Turkana Community on the 23rd January, 2009 during a Leaders Meeting at Baragoi Elwert G (1999) ‘Markets of Violence’, in Elwert G, Feuchtwang S and Neubert D (eds) Dynamics of Violence: Processes of Escalation and De-escalation in Violent Group Conflicts Sociologus, A Journal for Empirical Ethno-Sociology and Ethno-Psychology, Supplement 1, pp 85-102 Duncker & Humbolt, Berlin Elwert G, Feuchtwang S and Neubert D. (1999)’Introduction’ in Elwert G, Feuchtwang S and Neubert D (eds) Dynamics of Violence: Processes of Escalation and De-escalation in Violent Group Conflicts Sociologus, A Journal for Empirical Ethno-Sociology and Ethno-Psychology, Supplement 1, pp 85-102 Duncker & Humbolt, Berlin. Eisenstadt S.N (2002) ‘The Construction of Collective Identities and the Continual Reconstruction of Primordiality’ in Malesevic Sinisa and Haugaard Mark (eds) Making Sense of Collectivity: Ethnicity, Nationalism and Globolisation, pp 33-86, Social Sciences Research Center, Galway, Ireland, Pluto Press Ember C.R, Adem T. A, Skoggard, I, Jones E.C.(2012). Livestock Raiding and Rainfall Variability in Northwestern Kenya, Civil Wars 14(2):159-181. Etzioni, A (1968) ‘Mobilization as a macro-sociological conception. The British Journal of Sociology, 19(3): 243-253. Ferguson B.R and Whitehead N.L (1992) ‘Preface to the Second Printing’ in Ferguson B.R and Whitehead N.L (Eds) War in the Tribal Zone. Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare, pp xi-xxxvii, School of American Research Press, James Currey, Ltd Fleisher, L. Michael (2000) Kuria Cattle Raiders: Violence and Vigilantism on the Tanzania/Kenya Frontier, University of Michigan Press Fleisher L. Michael (2002) ‘War is good for thieving’ the Symbiosis of Crime and Warfare among the Kuria of Tanzania, Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 72, No. 1 pp. 131-149 Foucault, M (1979) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books. Foucault, M (2004) Society Must be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de France 1975-1976, Penguin: London, UK. Fukui K (1979) ‘Cattle Colour Symbolism and Inter-tribal Homicide among the Bodi’ in Fukui K and Turton D (Eds) Warfare among East African Herders. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka pp 147-177 Fukui K and Markakis J (1994) ‘Introduction’ in Fukui K and Markakis J (Eds), Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa, London: Currey Galaty J.G (2005a) States of Violence: Ethnicity, Politics and Pastoral Conflicts in East Africa, Geography Research Forum, Vol. 25, 105-127 Galaty J.G (2005b) Double-voiced Violence in Kenya. In “Violence and Belonging: The Quest for Identity in Post-colonial Africa, Broch-Due V. (Ed), pp 157-177 Routledge. Galaty J. G (2016) Boundary-Making and Pastoral Conflict along the Kenya-Ethiopian Borderlands, Africa Studies Review, Volume 59 No.1 pp97-122, Cambridge University Press https://muse.jhu.edu/article/614564/pdf Retrieved on 14th May 2016 Gakio W, and Mosoku G (2012) Samburu Villagers Flee Over Revenge Raids Fears, the Star http://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2012/11/01/samburu-villagers-flee-over-revenge-raid-fears_c699406 Retrieve | ||||||||||||
| Refereed: | Yes | ||||||||||||
| URI: | http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/id/eprint/7390 |
Downloads
Downloads per month over past year
Export
Actions (login required)
 |
View Item |